Learning

Assumptions about learning?

1. Actively constructed 
2. Emotional connection
3. Emerges from and builds on experiences (Spryral Curriculum)
4. Influenced by context 
5. Socially mediated and develops within a community
6. Social relationships 
7. School conditions can hinder learning 

To optimise learning? 

1. We MUST want to learn 
2. Make sense of what we are learning 
3. Practice or trial and error 
4. Take ownership 

5 dimensions of learning? 

1. Conscious and unconscious 
2. Different levels of attention 
3. Different sense sequence 
4. By detail or whole picture 
5. By fast track or scenic route 

6 conditions of learning? 

1. New experiences 
2. Rehearsal 
3. Learning foundations
4. Processing new information 
5. Demonstrating learning 
6. Moving to another level of understanding 

Memory

Memory is the retention of information over a period of time. We remember the first and last thing we hear (primary-recency effect), something we have heard more than once and something unusual. There are three processes involved with memory, these include, encoding, storage and retrieval.
Encoding is a process by which information is converted into codes so it is represented mentally through our senses. Storage is the process of retaining information over time. Retrieval involves taking information out of storage from the long term memory.
What we remember depends on our physical factors (Development of the brain), psychological factors  (Emotions and feelings), and behavioural factors  (Strategies to improve memory)
There are three types of memory: Immediate, short term and long term memory.
Immediate memory can only hold information for a few seconds. Short term memory Has a limited capacity (30 seconds) however, with rehearsal information can be kept longer. STM can be assessed through the memory span task. Long term memory has an unlimited capacity and can work for indefinite periods of time. There are two types of LTM, these include episodic/autobiographical memory and flashbulb memory. Episodic memory refers to information about event/episodes in our own life (personal events e.g. riding a bike) Flashbulb memory refers to emotional moments in our lives, memories become are vivid and complete, the individual has an intense emotional connection. (includes knowledge of the world e.g.9/11)
Infant Amnesia is the inability to remember events before the age of three. This is due to the immature pre-frontal lobes of the brain.

How can we improve memory? 

We can improve memory through the following techniques:

Mnemonics-Rhyme
Loci method
Acronyms
Jingles-Rhythm
Rote memorisation

Strategies to improve memory?

Below are eight strategies to improve memory.

1. Elaboration
2. Rote
3. Rehearsal
4. Organisation
5. Making notes
6. Motivation
7. Association
8. Imagery

Lev Semonarich Vygotsky

Lev Semonarich Vygotsky (1896-1934) is a Russian theorist with a socio-cultural perspective approach in mind. A social constructivist is the social interaction combined with the cognitive activity which shapes individual development and learning. Vygotsky stated that our minds are shaped by cultural context and that adults play a vital role in enabling children to learn. He believed an educator takes a facilitating role but creates a situation to allow cognitive conflict to occur. Alfrey stated that "Concepts,language, attention and conflict occur." Vygotsky emphasised that language helps children form ideas and that cognitive growth was largely a social activity. Vygotsky aimed to understand the nature, evolution and transmission of human culture. Vygotsky stated that "What a child can do today with guidance, she can do alone tomorrow."
Vygotsky believed learning took place through a process called the 'Zone of proximal development'
Z.P.D is the gap between what a child can do through independent problem solving and what can be achieved with the help of an expert. An important process is scaffolding, this is the support provided by an adult or a 'm.k.o' more knowledgeable other. Scaffolding provides supports, functions as a tool and extends the range of the learning. Scaffolding is provided by a teacher, a child's past experiences or an object and experience of a culture. There are five processes involved when referring to scaffolding, these include: Recruiting, reducing, direction maintenance, marking critical features and demonstration.
Recruiting is the process of motivating the learner through active engagement. Reducing involves simplifying a task to make it more manageable etc. through stages of progression. Direction maintenance involves sustaining motivation through encouragement. Marking critical features involves identifying relevant parts of the task. Demonstrating involves modelling the complete task.

Vygotsky believed cultural tools are devices used by humans for mastering their thinking and problem solving. Examples of cultural tools include puzzles, jigsaws, songs, symbols and books. Vygotsky referred to four stages that children pass through whilst learning, these include: Primitive stage, Practical intelligence, external symbolic stage and internalisation of symbolic tools.
Primitive stage is the use of vocal activity as a means of emotional expression and social engagement.
Practical Intelligence is when the child's language becomes syntactic (rules of speech) and logical forms. Process that involves practical problem solving. External symbolic stage involves thinking aloud and internalising problem solving. Internalisation of symbolic tools is a process of internalising thought and egocentric speech begins to disappear. Involves cognitive independence, freedom, flexibility.

Jean Piaget

Jean Piaget 1896–1980 was a Swiss developmental psychologist and a philosopher known for his epistemological studies with children. Piaget was the founder of the study 'cognitive growth' and published his work in 1924. Piaget was a theorist who believed in the constructivist approach. Constructivism is based on experiential learning, constructing and conditionalising knowledge. It is a direct approach with the exploration and physical manipulation of materials. He believed that children are active learners  "lone scientist"  they find meaning regardless of social environment. He said that children are intrinsically motivated and mentally active. Jean Piaget provided a detailed map of children's thought processes from birth to adolescence. He said "We actively construct our own knowledge and that all knowledge is tied to action." He believed teachers are facilitators providing stimulating environments and that children learn through experience. For Piaget, play was vital as it formed the basis of a child's imagination." Piaget used a method called 'clinical observation' to study child thinking. 

Piaget designed four Mental Schema's which include: Assimilation, Accommodation, Equilibrium and Disequilibrium 
Assimilation is the process when new experiences are taken in and added to increase a store of understanding. Accommodation is when a new experience doesn't fit' with existing understanding and some adjustment of understanding has to take place. Equilibrium is a state of mental balance which is the goal of every learner Disequilibrium is the struggle to accommodate  new knowledge with what is already known.(cognitive growth) 
Piaget also created 4 stages of cognitive development, these include: Sensory motor stage, pre-operational stage, Concrete operational stage and Formal operational stage.
Sensory motor stage/ Pre-conceptual stage (0-2): The child comes to know the world in terms of physical action. Stage ends with acquisition and though e.g. grasping and sucking. Pre-operational stage/ Intuitive: (2-7): A child is unable to reason in any logical way. This stage is based on perceptions. Children are egocentric. Egocentrism refers to the inability of a child to see a situation from another point of view. Concrete operational stage (7-12) The ability to structure and sort out their minds in the here and now. Trial and error predominate. Thought becomes reversible. Formal operational stage (+12) Abstract and hypothetical problems can be solved. The child can manipulate understanding of the world. This is the ultimate stage of cognitive growth. These four stages were formulated as a result of experiments. Three very important key words Piaget often refer to are: Conservation, animism and object permanence. Conservation is the process where quantity will remain the same even if the presentation changes. Animism is the process where by children believe inanimate objects have emotions Object permanence is the process of knowing an object still exists even when it is hidden. Piaget referred to the blanket and ball test. 

Criticism of Piaget theory?

• Saw children as lone scientists
• Underestimated the role of the teacher 
• Lack of consideration as to where learning takes place
• Underestimated the influence of culture and the environment 
• Underestimated children and overestimated teenagers 
• Tested his children then generalised results